BIO-DIVERSITY: MEASUREMENT OF BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY
Scientists from different disciplines are of different opinion regarding the methods of measurement of biodiversity.
Systematics, a fundamental discipline of bio-divefsity, provides the basic frame work for the whole of biology. The main task of systematics is to document and understand the extent and significance of biological diversity. A number of activities including classification, identification and Nomericla-ture often grouped as Taxonomy which forms four basic functions :
i. Differentiation (Recognition of taxa)ii. Identification (Universal diagnosis of taxa)iii. Symbolization (Application of universal names)iv. Comparison (Relative relationship of the taxa)
Individuals and characters are the most basic unit of biological classification on the basis of features hold in common (attributes or characters) individual can be grouped together into a large number of different classes, categories like genera, families and orders and so on in artificial natural or phylogenetic classification depending upon the characters on which it is based. On the basis of the shared and unshared attributes between taxa, a number of taxonomic diversity indices for example, root-weight, higher taxon richness and taxonomic dispersion have now been developed.
Diversity can also be expressed as percentages. A site with viable population of all species in a group would have diversity score of 100% while a site without any species of the group in question would score zero. Such assessment allows us to compare all sites with each other and rank them individually from highest to lowest diversity.
Ecologists measure diversity either by estimating species richness (number of species) in an area or by one or more indexes combining species richness and relative abundance within an area. Application of such methods for measuring biodiversity are limited.i) The species richness measures which is based onsamples (a complete cataloguing of all species in aparticular taxonomic group) is of limited interest, be-cause.Species richness take no account of the differences between species in relation to their place in the hierarchy.When the biological diversity of a very small area is compared with longer area in a global context.ii) Relative abundance is not a fixed property of speciesvarying widely from time to time and place to place.iii) Further, most taxa are virtually or even completelyunknown in many environments.
Conservationists measure the diversity either directly by measuring the genetic differences or indirectly through use of the taxanomic (cladistic) hierarchy.
Whittakar, introduced the concepts of alpha, beta and gamma diversity. Alpha diversity refers to the diversity value for single sites whereas, Beta and Gamma diversity concepts related to change in diversity between sites, the former at local, and latter at over larger area or geographical scale such as continents.An important and essential part of these relational concepts is the idea of species turnover, which simply means thje degree to which species present at one site are replaced by other at different sites.
PROBLEMS IN MEASURING BIODIVERSITY
One of the most important problem in the maintenance of biological diversity is an assessment of the relative importance in terms of diversity of different areas, habitats or ecosystems. This importance can be assessed in different related ways. The overall diversity of any given area will be reflection both of its range of habitats. The greater the differences between the various component habitat in terms of species composition, then the greater the overall diversity will be. By measuring species abundance, a number of models have been developed to find out diversity indices. As different mathematical and biological assumptions are made in these models, they often generate different diversity measures from the same set of data.
DIVERSITY AT DIFFERENT GRADIENT
The overall diversity of any given area is a reflection both of the range of habitat it includes and the diversity of the components habitats. In terms of species composition of differences between the various component is more, the overall diversity will also be more. Biological diversity is not evenly distributed throughout the world. It varies from region to region.
In terrestrial ecosystem diversity generally decreases with increasing altitude. This is apparently clear from an example showing very low species diversity at highest region at all altitudes. This is called as elevational gradients.
In aquatic ecosystems diversity almost invariably decreases when salinity increases above 35 ppt. in sea water and 2 ppt in fresh water. Oceanic islands (smaller) continental mountain regions are examples of geographical entities which typically have comparatively low species diversity. This may be due to problems of long distance dispersal for plants. But the low total number of species frequently include a large endemic element. In Mauritius, out of 878 higher plant species 329 are endemic, in Socotra, 268 species are endemic out of 788 flowering plant species and in Helena 74 out of 89 species. Larger oceanic islands in tropical and high temperate latitude show a high level of diversity and endemism. The richest island flora is probably that of Madagaskar estimated up to 10,000 species with 8,000 endemics including eight endemic families of flowering plants. Cuba has 6,400 species of higher plants out of which 3,233 of them are endemic. Japan has 2,000 endemic species out of 5,372 species, New Zealand has 1,942 out of 2,371.
On the other hand, relatively poor levels of diversity and endemisms can be seen in drier tropical and subtropical regions. In these regions drought resistant and economic plants are the main dominating species.
BIO-DIVERSITY VALUE
One of the most fundamental value of plants biodiversity is in supplying the world’s food. Originally plants were consumed directly from the wild and gathering of wild products continue throughout the world today. The evaluation of crop plants began between 5,000 and 10,000 years ago. It is now generally thought that plants of agriculture originated were more or less simultaneously in various parts of the world. Of the estimated 250,000 species of flowering plants only about 3,000 have been regarded as a food resource. Relatively few botanical families account for the world’s main domesticated plants. Gramineae and Leguminosae are most important families followed by the Cruciferae, Rosaceae, Umbelliferae, Solanaceae, and Labiatae. Other important families are the Chenopodiaceae, Araceae, Cucurbitaceae and Compositae.
The discovery, domestication and cultivation of ornamental plants have a long history comparable to that of food crops. Ornamental plants are important commodity in international trade. Today, the diversity of decorative plant species established in cultivation surpasses the variety of plant commonly grown for food around the world. In UK alone a estimated 3,000 species are in general cultivation in addition to the wide range of cultivers and hybrids. In Peru, fruits of 1 93 species are regularly consumed of these 1 20 species are exclusively wild.
The introduction of genes from wild and weed relatives increased the availability of crop genetic diversity for further selection and improvement by farmers. Many cultivated species may not have survived in domestication without the interchange of genes between wild and crop populations.
LOSS OF BIODIVERSITY
Plant diversity as a global resource remains poorly understood inadequately documental and often wasted, but still remains immense potential for further development of natural products. Human population explosion and application of economic processes to natural resources are the main causes for substantial losses of biological diversity. Humans continue to modify their natural environment so that it can better satisfy their needs. However, it is also predicted that this process is unlikely to target an adequate amount of diversity because persons deciding to com ert their local environment do not consider the global cost of so doing. Globally the forest has been reduced to 55% of ,ts original cover and the rate of deforestation is in excess ct 1,00,000 Sq.km. every year. In India the rate of destruction of forest is 13,000 sq.km. annually.*16\218\2*

Take pleasure in your food and make sure that it is both tasty and natural. Do not be a slave to time with one eye always on the clock. Eat peacefully and slowly, chewing your food well. In this way you will extract all the nourishment possible and your internal organs will benefit from the work your teeth and salivary glands have done for them. Those who enjoy and value what nature’s garden so generously gives us should remember to be grateful and not take the well-laden table for granted. There are so many things in which we can rejoice that there is really no time left for discontent.

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Today, totally untouched places in nature are few and far between, and their number continues to, decrease, so that we wonder where it will all end. I remember talking to a zoologist I met in Guayaquil, Equador, as he was preparing to travel to the Galapagos Islands to study the iguanas, large lizards, living there. He poured out a tale of woe about the devastation being inflicted and how, soon, he would hardly know where to go anymore to study certain animals in their natural habitat. Wanton destruction and killing and the advance of civilisation were changing the environment so drastically that these animals were being robbed of their habitat and chance of survival. Something or someone has to pay when short-sighted, one-sided measures are taken and the biological balance of nature is disturbed.

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Why, then, do the unsaturated fatty acids have the above-mentioned advantages, whereas the hardened fats have lost them? The answer is quite a simple one. They are not saturated and therefore able to become saturated. That is, the unsaturated fatty acids are still able to combine with other elements. Figuratively speaking, they are still single, unmarried, and therefore ready and willing to enter a relationship. They will combine with the minerals, proteins and oxygen in the body and in this way encourage normal cell metabolism and oxidation. If these functions are interfered with over a period of years, even decades, the cells degenerate and disease will inevitably manifest itself. Cell growth may become abnormal and malignant, cancerous. The phospholipoids may degenerate and this can lead to thrombosis. Where there is a lack of polyunsaturated fatty acids and in their place an excess of saturated ones, the cholesterol in the blood will combine with the fats and deposit itself on the walls of the blood vessels, giving rise to hardening of the arteries (arteriosclerosis), high blood pressure and the danger of apoplexy or a stroke.

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Tomato juice is recommended as a protection against premature aging, as well as the symptoms of overtiredness and unpleasant body odour. It is refreshing and cleanses the body.

Unlike the other juices, which are good for health but also delicious taken before meals to stimulate the appetite, potato juice is strictly remedial, and is particularly indicated for the treatment of stomach ulcers.

Vegetable juices enhanced by lacto-fermentation have a stimulating and balancing effect on our vital intestinal flora.

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If you do suspect a plant of having a fungous or root disease, one effective ground spray is the following: Obtain if you can the leaves of Equisetum arvense, Horsetail, or Mare’s Tail, from your nursery, or the dried leaves through your natureopathic physician. Boil 1 part equisetum to 50 parts of water for 15 to 20 minutes. Do not make the solution any stronger, as the herb is a very potent one. Water this around the base of the affected plants (not on the foliage) on soil which has been soaked well the previous day. Equisetum has a very high silica content.

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Theoretically (and logically) those using artificial methods should be tagged as “witch doctors” if that title is to be placed anywhere. Please don’t think I have any grudge against medical practitioners. I believe only that they have been misled by the man-made “wonder drugs” of the last half-century, and by their patients’ demand that the symptoms of illness should be cured as quickly as possible. Suppressing the symptoms only aggravates the body’s inability to expel any disease-caused poisons. A runny nose is not pleasant, but it is the body’s way of freeing swollen tissues from the waste matter accumulated in them.

Perhaps we ourselves are to blame. No one likes to be sick, and if illness strikes we would all like a magical potion to make us instantly well again. Tackle it from the other angle: use the goodness of herbs and natural foods to build up resistance and vital health, and disease will have trouble gaining a foothold. If it does lay you low, try rest, patience and Nature’s remedies, and the cause of the illness should soon disappear.

On the lighter side, herbs can be fun. If you like to practise oneupmanship, do it with a drop of this and a sprig of that in your food when friends and relatives come for a meal. Keep them guessing, and surprise them with your skill.

So all I can add now is the phrase with which I ended my Introduction to these pages about the fascinating world of over twenty centuries of herbal lore:

Bon appetit, good health, and happiness!

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Rue is a herb that today means to many of us only a plant carried by Hamlets Ophelia, and therefore signifying sorrow and dire misfortune. Early herb writers revelled in the knowledge we have now lost of its amazingly strong powers, in particular those affecting eyesight and counteracting poisons. Present-day crime has veered away from poison as a means of settling a score or removing a political enemy; but in the Greek and Roman Empires, a knowledge of antidotes often meant life itself. Rue had an almost magical reputation for warding off or counteracting evil, and even long before this it was known to the Druids and the ancient Saxons as a holy herb and strewn in homes and public places. Later, Christian churches used it too, the twigs for sprinkling Holy Water being taken from the bush. Dioscorides noted that a weasel, when going out snake-hunting for food, often ate rue first, and from this observation came later experiments using it as a poison antidote. It was the principal ingredient in mithridate, the legendary antidote for all poisons ever concocted, and was the plant given by Mercury to Ulysses to overcome the poisons (both physical and mental) of Circe. Dioscorides also noted another peculiarity of rue: it can raise a nasty inflammation when handled by some people with sensitive skins. So if you wish to grow it, treat it with suitable care.

Rue was much in demand amongst the artisans, craftsmen, sculptors and painters of the Renaissance period as a strengthener of eyesight. A weak tea was brewed from the leaves and taken inwardly, and the eyes were bathed each day with a similar solution. The herb is a very powerful one, so be careful if you wish to follow in the steps of Leonardo and Michelangelo, who both used it, claiming it gave them not only strengthened and improved vision but inner sight and creativity as well.

The seeds germinate slowly, and when finally through the soil they appear to be crawling about all over the seed box with downy little feelers. Sow them in the spring, and trans¬plant when the seedlings are big enough to handle. You should not need gloves at this early stage of their growth.

A border of rue can be very effective, as its greyish-blue foliage makes delicate counterpoint with the true greens more common in the flower garden. For a striking ribbon of colour around formal beds, plant rue all along the edge, santolina (a grey feathery-soft plant with brilliant yellow flower-cushions in spring) inside it, then balance these two with another planting of blue rosemary behind. As a border for a large rose-garden, this tri-coloured hedge can be quite spectacular.

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1 1/2 cups water

1 3/4 lb. brown sugar

1/4 cup corn syrup

Cook the horehound slowly in water for 15 minutes, if possible in a stainless steel or heavy saucepan with the lid on. Then let stand for one hour. Remove the horehound (tip it on the compost heap), then add the sugar and syrup to the liquid and boil to “hard-crack” stage (300 degrees F. on a candy thermometer). Pour into a greased shallow pan, and mark into squares.

The botanical name comes from the Hebrew marrob, a bitter juice, and the herb is certainly not a pleasant-tasting one in its raw state. It is a native of Europe, North Africa and Central Asia, and has naturalized in many parts of the world including Britain and North America, where in some states it is a declared noxious weed! How true is that definition of a weed “a plant whose uses to man have not yet been appreciated”!

The plant is ungainly and perhaps even untidy, the white downy stems and woolly leaves trailing along in all directions. In summer white whorls of flowers appear at the leaf axils, but these, too, are neither attractive nor showy. If ever an ugly duckling had a hidden swanlike soul it is horehound. It grows best in poor soil; my own horehound plants have the rockiest, most difficult corner in the garden.

Check with your Department of Agriculture before starting off a paddock of horehound to cure the world’s ills. In your area it may be a declared weed.

Bill Wannan, in his entertaining book Folk Medicine, tells of horehound’s role in the early Australian goldrush days. In the 1890s at Kalgoorlie, Chinese (clever, as always) who had come to work as cheap labour on the goldfields went away somewhat richer because of their knowledge of vitamin-rich horehound. The dried leaves were sold at steadily inflating prices to miners to brew a tonic tea. Old-timers swore by its efficacy. Horehound poultices were often used as a remedy for the “Barcoo rot”, a skin disease caused by over-exposure to the dry heat of the inland together with vitamin deficiencies in the diet. The herb’s reputation grew as one boundary rider passed on the good word to the next. Barcoo rot is seldom encountered now that more is known about diet, but horehound’s praises are still sung on many outback stations by those old enough to remember.

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